Antiviral Chemotherapy in Avian Medicine-A Review.

This review article describes the current knowledge about the use of antiviral chemotherapeutics in avian species, such as farm poultry and companion birds. Specific therapeutics are described in alphabetical order including classic antiviral drugs, such as acyclovir, abacavir, adefovir, amantadine, didanosine, entecavir, ganciclovir, interferon, lamivudine, penciclovir, famciclovir, oseltamivir, ribavirin, and zidovudine, repurposed drugs, such as ivermectin and nitazoxanide, which were originally used as antiparasitic drugs, and some others substances showing antiviral activity, such as ampligen, azo derivates, docosanol, fluoroarabinosylpyrimidine nucleosides, and novel peptides. Most of them have only been used for research purposes and are not widely used in clinical practice because of a lack of essential pharmacokinetic and safety data. Suggested future research directions are also highlighted.

The first confirmed cases of pigeon rotavirus A (RVA) infection in domestic pigeons (Columba livia) in Poland.

Introduction: Although the presence of rotaviruses in pigeon samples has been reported since the 1980s, its importance as an aetiological agent of the "classical" young pigeon disease (YPD) was not proven until 2020, when the Henle-Koch postulates were confirmed for pigeon-type rotavirus A (RVA) genotype G18P(17). Material and Methods: From 2011 to 2020, archived liver samples from 117 pigeons submitted by 74 individual lofts were tested for the presence of pigeon-type RVA using a VP6-specific RT-qPCR test. For four positive racing pigeons, a more detailed necropsy and histopathological analysis was performed. Results: Indicators of an acute RVA infection were found in 24 out of 117 (20.5%) samples tested, the earliest in 2014. Necropsies of the four selected RVA-positive pigeons showed changes mainly in the liver, spleen and kidneys similar to those described by other researchers. The histopathological examination revealed mainly hyperaemia and necrosis in the liver, as well as mononuclear cell infiltrates in these organs. Conclusion: Pigeon-type RVA is also a cause of YPD in Poland and is a serious challenge for racing pigeon breeders and veterinarians, especially during the training and flights of young pigeons.

MOLECULAR CHARACTERIZATION OF ORNITHOSTRONGYLUS QUADRIRADIATUS ISOLATED FROM A RACING PIGEON (COLUMBA LIVIA DOMESTICA).

An infestation of Ornithostrongylus quadriradiatus, has been found in a racing pigeon Columba livia domestica). In addition, this individual had a mild infection with Trichomonas spp. and Eimeria spp. The bird showed symptoms of increased appetite; unformed, dark- green feces; and lack of typical male behavior, but the general condition of this pigeon was good. The pigeon was euthanized because of a permanent inability to fly due to an injury to the wing. A postmortem examination revealed the presence of very small dark-pink twisted nematodes with the morphology of O. quadriradiatus in the small intestine, mainly the duodenum. Histopathology showed segmental inflammatory changes in the intestines caused by both blood-sucking nematodes and Eimeria spp. The 5.8S ribosomal ribonucleic acid polymerase chain reaction amplicons from deoxyribonucleic acid extracted from O. quadriradiatus had 82.40% identity with Australostrongylus victoriensis and 81.20% with Travassostrongylus spp. This is the first molecular characterization of O. quadriradiatus-a relatively rare pigeon parasite.

Bornaviral infections in Atlantic canaries (Serinus canaria) in Poland.

The presence of canary bornavirus (Orthobornavirus serini) genetic material was tested in organ samples from 157 Atlantic canaries (Serinus canaria) and four hybrids of Atlantic canary and European goldfinch (Carduelis carduelis). The subjects of the research were samples collected in the years 2006-2022. A positive result was obtained in 16 canaries and one hybrid (10.5%). Eleven positive canaries had neurological signs prior to death. Four of them also had atrophic changes in the forebrain, which have not previously been described in canaries and other species of birds infected with avian bornavirus. In one canary, computed tomography without contrast was performed. This study showed no changes, despite advanced forebrain atrophy found on post-mortem examination of the bird. The organs of the studied birds were also tested with PCR tests for the presence of polyomaviruses and circoviruses. There was no correlation between the bornavirus infection and the presence of the other two viruses in the tested canaries.RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS The incidence of bornaviral infections in canaries in Poland is relatively low.Non-contrast CT is not a useful method for brain atrophy diagnostic in canaries.Neurological signs were found in the majority of birds infected with bornaviruses.Visceral ganglioneuritis was found in a minority of birds infected with bornaviruses.

In patients with well-differentiated neuroendocrine tumours, there is no apparent benefit of somatostatin analogues after disease control by peptide receptor radionuclide therapy.

PURPOSE: Peptide receptor radionuclide therapy (PRRT) and somatostatin analogues (SSAs) are commonly combined as primary treatment for neuroendocrine neoplasms (NEN), and SSAs given as maintenance. We sought to evaluate whether sequential therapy with PRRT followed by SSAs has progression or survival benefits in patients with NEN after disease control by PRRT. METHODS: This prospective, randomised, single-centre study had as principal eligibility criteria: unresectable, locally advanced, or metastatic, histologically confirmed well-differentiated NEN; no symptoms/biochemical diagnosis of carcinoid syndrome; no SSAs or ≤ 3 months of SSAs before PRRT; and stable disease or partial or complete response after PRRT. Altogether, 115 patients were randomised 2:1 to an SSA group (n = 74) given octreotide acetate LAR every 4 weeks, or a control group (n = 41) receiving only best supportive care. Octreotide treatment was to stop upon intolerable toxicity or patient refusal, or, at physician/patient discretion, upon NEN progression. The primary endpoint was progression-free survival (PFS), the secondary endpoint, and overall survival (OS). RESULTS: Median (25th-75th percentile) follow-up from the first PRRT activity to death or latest observation was 6.6 (3.18-10.22) years. During that time, 71/115 patients (62%) progressed, 52/74 (70%) in the SSA group, and 19/41 (46%) in the control group (p = 0.01). Eighty-eight/115 patients (76%) died, 58/74 (78%) in the SSA group, and 30/41 (73%) in the control group (p = 0.52). Median (95% CI) PFS was 4.7 (2.8-7.7) years in the SSA group, and 6.4 (4.1-not reached) years in controls. Overall, median OS was 6.6 years. Neither PFS nor OS differed between groups (p = 0.129, p = 0.985, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: In patients with disease control after PRRT, subsequent SSA treatment appeared not to be associated with better PFS or OS. Whether to continue SSA administration upon progression after PRRT requires evaluation in a prospective, randomised, controlled multicentre study with a relatively homogeneous sample.

Case of necrotic enteritis associated with campylobacteriosis and coccidiosis in an adult Indian peacock (Pavo cristatus).

BACKGROUND: To date, Campylobacter jejuni has not been found to be pathogenic to peafowl. The available publications show that out of a total of 44 samples tested from peafowl, this bacterium was isolated only in two cases. Eimeria pavonina infestations in the peafowl have been described, but no fatal cases have been reported yet. CASE PRESENTATION: The four-year-old peacock was presented with chronic diarrhea, emaciation and weakness. Post mortem examination revealed enlarged and pale kidneys, small intestinal mucosal necrosis and thickening of intestinal wall, and pericardial effusion. The histopathological examination revealed necrotic enteritis with marked mononuclear cells infiltration associated with the presence of coccidia, additionally there was histological evidence of septicemia in liver and kidneys. Bacteria identification was based on light microscopy of the small intestine sample, culture, and biochemical tests. Further identification was based on PCR. Antimicrobial susceptibility profile was created by determination of minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) values for 6 antimicrobial agents from 5 different classes. PCR assays were performed to detect virulence factors genes responsible for motility, cytolethal distending toxin production, adhesion and internalization. Bacteriology of the small intestine sample showed abundant growth almost exclusively of Campylobacter jejuni, resistant to ciprofloxacin, gentamycin and ampicillin. Bacteria was sensitive to Amoxicillin + clavulanic acid, tetracycline, and erythromycin. All tested virulence factors genes have been detected. The parasitological examination was performed by microscopic examination of fresh faeces and intestinal content, and revealed the moderate number of Eimeria pavonina, Histomonas meleagridis, single Capillaria spp. eggs as well Heterakis spp. like parasites. CONCLUSION: The above case shows that a virulent isolate of Campylobacter jejuni in combination with a parasitic invasion may cause chronic enteritis in peafowl, which most likely led to extreme exhaustion of the host organism and death.

Diagnosis and treatment of thyroid cancer in adult patients - Recommendations of Polish Scientific Societies and the National Oncological Strategy. 2022 Update [Diagnostyka i leczenie raka tarczycy u chorych doroslych - Rekomendacje Polskich Towarzystw Naukowych oraz Narodowej Strategii Onkologicznej. Aktualizacja na rok 2022].

The guidelines Thyroid Cancer 2022 are prepared based on previous Polish recommendations updated in 2018. They consider international guidelines - American Thyroid Association (ATA) 2015 and National Comprehensive Cancer Network (NCCN); however, they are adapted according to the ADAPTE process. The strength of the recommendations and the quality of the scientific evidence are assessed according to the GRADE system and the ATA 2015 and NCCN recommendations. The core of the changes made in the Polish recommendations is the inclusion of international guidelines and the results of those scientific studies that have already proven themselves prospectively. These extensions allow de-escalation of the therapeutic management in low-risk thyroid carcinoma, i.e., enabling active surveillance in papillary microcarcinoma to be chosen alternatively to minimally invasive techniques after agreeing on such management with the patient. Further extensions allow the use of thyroid lobectomy with the isthmus (hemithyroidectomy) in low-risk cancer up to 2 cm in diameter, modification of the indications for postoperative radioiodine treatment toward personalized approach, and clarification of the criteria used during postoperative L-thyroxine treatment. At the same time, the criteria for the preoperative differential diagnosis of nodular goiter in terms of ultrasonography and fine-needle aspiration biopsy have been clarified, and the rules for the histopathological examination of postoperative thyroid material have been updated. New, updated rules for monitoring patients after treatment are also presented. The updated recommendations focus on ensuring the best possible quality of life after thyroid cancer treatment while maintaining the good efficacy of this treatment.

Only peak thyroglobulin concentration on day 1 and 3 of rhTSH-aided RAI adjuvant treatment has prognostic implications in differentiated thyroid cancer.

OBJECTIVE: In patients with differentiated thyroid carcinoma (DTC), serum thyroglobulin levels measured at the time of remnant ablation after thyroid hormone withdrawal were shown to have prognostic value for disease-free status. We sought to evaluate serial thyroglobulin measurements at the time of recombinant human thyroid-stimulating hormone (rhTSH)-aided iodine 131 (131I) adjuvant treatment as prognostic markers of DTC. METHODS: Six hundred-fifty patients with DTC given total/near-total thyroidectomy and adjuvant radioiodine post-rhTSH stimulation were evaluated. Thyroglobulin was measured on day 1 (Tg1; at the time of the first rhTSH injection), day 3 (Tg3; 1 day after the second, final rhTSH injection), and day 6 (Tg6; 3 days post-radioiodine administration). Treatment failure was defined as histopathologically confirmed locoregional recurrence, or radiologically-evident distant metastases (signs of disease on computer tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), or abnormal foci of radioiodine or [18F] fluorodeoxyglucose ([18F]FDG) uptake. RESULTS: In univariate analysis, Tg1 (p < 0.001) and Tg3 (p < 0.001), but not Tg6, were significantly associated with structural recurrence. In multivariate analysis of the overall cohort, only Tg3 was independently associated with structural recurrence. In multivariate analysis of the subgroup (n = 561) with anti-Tg antibodies titers below the institutional cut-off, 115 IU/mL, Tg1 was an independent prognostic marker. Tg1 and Tg3 cutoffs to best predict structural recurrence were established at 0.7 ng/mL and 1.4 ng/mL, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Tg1 and Tg3, measurements made after rhTSH stimulation but before radioiodine treatment, independently predict a low risk of treatment failure in patients with DTC. Levels measured post-radioiodine application (e.g., Tg6) are highly variable, lack prognostic value, and hence can be omitted.

Monitored Therapy of Sporadic Mycobacteriosis Caused By Mycobacterium Genavense in Atlantic Canaries (Serinus Canaria) and Bengalese Finch (Lonchura Striata).

INTRODUCTION: Mycobacteriosis is a significant disease of companion and wild birds which causes emaciation and widely distributed lesions, as well as being a potential zoonosis. Its primary aetiological agents in birds are Mycobacterium avium subsp. avium and the fastidious Mycobacterium genavense. This study monitored the therapy of birds naturally infected with Mycobacterium genavense to gain understanding of its effectiveness and the interrelation of co-infections with the disease course and pharmacotherapy. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Five Atlantic canaries (Serinus canaria) and one Bengalese finch (Lonchura striata) with tentative diagnoses of mycobacteriosis resulting from M. genavense infection were treated twice daily with clarithromycin at 40 mg/kg, ethambutol at 30 mg/kg, and moxifloxacin at 10 mg/kg for 6 months. Two canaries were also found to be carriers of Cryptosporidium galli. Mycobacteria in faecal samples of all birds were investigated by bacterioscopy and quantitative PCR. RESULTS: Molecular tests yielded positive results for up to four months after treatment initiation for M. genavense and Cryptosporidium, but microscopy failed to detect the latter after four weeks in specimens from one canary. Co-infections with polyomavirus (in all birds) and circovirus and bornavirus (in canaries) were diagnosed. Two birds died during treatment and one was euthanised because of other disease, 1 month after treatment completion. Three canaries were in relatively good health a year after treatment. CONCLUSION: Canary circovirus and polyomavirus co-infection may suppress the immune system and this may facilitate the development of mycobacteriosis. The set of drugs used led to the complete cure of mycobacteriosis in three canaries. In one bird the disease returned. Clarithromycin was the active drug against C. galli. Molecular methods serve well to monitor mycobacteriosis therapy and identify M. genavense and C. galli carriage.

Case Study and Attempt of Treatment of Mycobacteriosis Caused by Mycobacterium avium in a Parental Flock of Meat-Breed Pigeons.

Mycobacteriosis caused by Mycobacterium avium subsp. avium was observed in a parental loft of 70 meat-breed pigeons. It was decided to undertake treatment as the birds represented a substantial value to the owner. A multiagent therapy using azithromycin, marbofloxacin, and ethambutol was administered. After 4 mo of therapy, the desired results were not obtained. At the end of treatment, the birds were in poor general condition, with white blood cells above 20 g/L, and after clutching, 2-yr-old and older birds were euthanatized. Overall, postmortem lesions were found in 17 out of 49 necropsied individuals. Slide agglutination tests with a M. avium subsp. avium lysate were conducted in all examined pigeons. In 28 pigeons, blood count was conducted once a month during therapy, while in 24 pigeons, a tuberculin sensitivity test was conducted before the planned euthanatization. The tuberculin sensitivity test did not prove useful in the diagnosis of ill individuals. Slide agglutination yielded positive results in only four birds, all of which also had postmortem lesions. Blood count in a large number of cases allowed distinguishing between ill and healthy individuals, which was used for subsequent selection. The comparison of cultured strains with the (CCG)4-based PCR method showed the variation of M. avium isolates up to a maximum of 30%. The described case proves that the treatment of mycobacteriosis in pigeon flocks is not effective, mainly due to the high resistance to M. avium subsp. avium. In addition, therapy may contribute to an even greater increase in mycobacterial resistance to antibiotics, which may pose a potential risk to public health.

TERT Promoter Mutations and Their Impact on Gene Expression Profile in Papillary Thyroid Carcinoma.

BACKGROUND: Telomerase reverse transcriptase promoter (TERTp) mutations are related to a worse prognosis in various malignancies, including papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC). Since mechanisms responsible for the poorer outcome of TERTp(+) patients are still unknown, searching for molecular consequences of TERTp mutations in PTC was the aim of our study. METHODS: The studied cohort consisted of 54 PTCs, among them 24 cases with distant metastases. BRAF V600E, RAS, and TERTp mutational status was evaluated in all cases. Differences in gene expression profile between TERTp(+) and TERTp(-) PTCs were examined using microarrays. The evaluation of signaling pathways and gene ontology was based on the Gene Set Enrichment Analysis. RESULTS: Fifty-nine percent (32/54) of analyzed PTCs were positive for at least one mutation: 27 were BRAF(+), among them eight were TERTp(+), and 1 NRAS(+), whereas five other samples harbored RAS mutations. Expression of four genes significantly differed in BRAF(+)TERTp(+) and BRAF(+)TERTp(-) PTCs. Deregulation of pathways involved in key cell processes was observed. CONCLUSIONS: TERTp mutations are related to higher PTC aggressiveness. CRABP2 gene was validated as associated with TERTp mutations. However, its potential use in diagnostics or risk stratification in PTC patients needs further studies.

Prevalence, antibiotic susceptibility and virulence factors of Enterococcus species in racing pigeons (Columba livia f. domestica).

BACKGROUND: This study was aimed to investigate the intestinal microbiota in racing pigeons with regard to Enterococcus species distribution, virulence factors and antibiotic susceptibility. Three methods (API, Multiplex sodA-PCR, 16S rRNA sequencing) were compared for Enterococcus species identification. Cloacal samples from 179 apparently healthy pigeons of 13 different flocks were tested. RESULTS: Multiplex sodA-PCR and 16S rRNA gene sequencing showed almost perfect agreement in Enterococcus species identification. Isolates were identified as Enterococcus columbae (34.5%), Enterococcus hirae (20.7%), Enterococcus faecalis (11.7%), Enterococcus faecium (11.7%), Enterococcus gallinarum (9%), Enterococcus mundtii (4.8%), Enterococcus casseliflavus (3.4%), Enterococcus cecorum (2.1%), Enterococcus durans (2.1%). More Enterococcus species were found after the race season than before. The study showed differences between Enterococcus species in relation to 68.8% (22/32) biochemical parameters. Six out of seven virulence genes were detected: gelE (43.5%), asa1 (42.1%), efaA (30.3%), ace (30.3%), cylA (27.6%), and esp (9%). None of the isolates harboured hyl gene. Overall 15.2% of Enterococcus isolates produced gelatinase, but 66.7% gelE genes were silent. Enterococcus faecalis showed the most often efaA, ace and gelatinase activity than other enterococcal species. Nearly all isolates (93.1%) were resistant to at least one antibiotic. The most frequent resistance was to enrofloxacin (80%), doxycycline with teicoplanin (73.1%), erythromycin (49.7%). The study revealed significant differences between some enterococcal species in the antibiotic susceptibility to different antibiotics. Enterococcus columbae and E. cecorum showed significantly more frequent resistance to chloramphenicol than other enterococci. The presence of VRE (19.3%), HLGR (2.8%) and no LRE were found. Overall 30.3% of isolates were positive for vancomycin resistance genes, where vanC1 (E. gallinarum), vanC2-C3 (E. hirae, E. casseliflavus), vanB (E. columbae) predominated. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude, that intestinal microbiota in racing pigeons is composed by 9 different Enterococcus species. Given that racing pigeons are kept in close contact with humans and backyard animals, combined with their long-distance flight abilities, they can serve as potential source of virulent and antibiotic resistant Enterococcus spp. in the environment.

Drug Susceptibility of Non-tuberculous Strains of Mycobacterium Isolated from Birds from Poland.

Mycobacterioses are a constant problem in backyard poultry, as well as pet birds. To date, no evidence of direct transmission of atypical bacilli between humans has been demonstrated, but it cannot be ruled out that sick animals can be a source of infection for people in their environment. The aim of the study was to identify mycobacteria isolated from birds with diagnosed mycobacteriosis and to determine the susceptibility of mycobacterial isolates from these animals to antituberculous drugs most commonly used in the treatment of mycobacterial infections in humans. For drug susceptibility tests, drugs such as isoniazid, rifampicin, streptomycin, ethambutol, ofloxacin, capreomycin, cycloserine and ethionamide were used. A high degree of drug resistance was demonstrated, particularly in Mycobacterium avium . Isolates of Mycobacterium xenopi showed a relatively good susceptibility to the drugs tested. The drug resistance of Mycobacterium genavense has not been determined, but this mycobacterium was identified in ten cases, which is the second most frequent occurrence in the cases studied.Mycobacterioses are a constant problem in backyard poultry, as well as pet birds. To date, no evidence of direct transmission of atypical bacilli between humans has been demonstrated, but it cannot be ruled out that sick animals can be a source of infection for people in their environment. The aim of the study was to identify mycobacteria isolated from birds with diagnosed mycobacteriosis and to determine the susceptibility of mycobacterial isolates from these animals to antituberculous drugs most commonly used in the treatment of mycobacterial infections in humans. For drug susceptibility tests, drugs such as isoniazid, rifampicin, streptomycin, ethambutol, ofloxacin, capreomycin, cycloserine and ethionamide were used. A high degree of drug resistance was demonstrated, particularly in Mycobacterium avium. Isolates of Mycobacterium xenopi showed a relatively good susceptibility to the drugs tested. The drug resistance of Mycobacterium genavense has not been determined, but this mycobacterium was identified in ten cases, which is the second most frequent occurrence in the cases studied.

Guidelines of Polish National Societies Diagnostics and Treatment of Thyroid Carcinoma. 2018 Update.

Significant advances have been made in thyroid can-cer research in recent years, therefore relevant clinical guidelines need to be updated. The current Polish guidelines "Diagnostics and Treatment of Thyroid Carcinoma" have been formulated at the "Thyroid Cancer and Other Malignancies of Endocrine Glands" conference held in Wisla in November 2015 [1].

Invasion of Flukes of the Echinostomatidae Family in Racing Pigeon ( Columba livia var. domestica) Lofts.

Over 4 years, only two known cases of fluke invasions were diagnosed in racing pigeons ( Columba livia ) originating from different regions of Poland. In both cases, the invasion was characterized by a very high mortality (approximately 70%), and the source of the infestation was snails of the Lymnaeidae family eaten by pigeons. Fluke invasions in pigeons are extremely rare and to date have not been described in Poland. Therefore, the occurrence of the symptoms of hemorrhagic diarrhea and sudden deaths of either adult pigeons or nestlings were suspected to be associated with poisoning. Autopsy revealed an invasion of flukes causing hemorrhagic enteritis. Renal failure and spleen atrophy were also found in the birds. Using molecular biology techniques, infestation with the fluke Echinostoma revolutum was determined in the second case.

Occurrence of phaeochromocytoma tumours in RET mutation carriers - a single-centre study.

INTRODUCTION: Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2 (MEN 2) is an autosomal dominant genetic syndrome caused by germline mutation in RET proto-oncogene. The most common mutations are in a cysteine rich domain. Phaeochromocytoma will develop in approximately 50% of RET proto-oncogene carriers. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The studied population consisted of 228 RET proto-oncogene mutation carriers. Monitoring for the diagnosis of phaeochromocytoma was carried out in all patients with established genetic status. Mean time of follow up was 138 months. Surveillance consisted of periodically performed clinical evaluation, 24-hour urinary determinations of total metanephrines complementary with imaging (CT, MR, MIBG scintigraphy). RESULTS: Phaeochromocytoma developed in 41 patients (18% of all RET proto-oncogene mutations carriers). The mean age of diagnosis for the whole cohort was 43 years. In eight cases phaeochromocytoma was the first manifestation of the MEN 2 syndrome. Only eight (20%) patients were symptomatic at diagnosis of phaeochromocytoma. The mean size of the tumour was 4.3 cm. There was no extra-adrenal localisation. We observed one case of malignant phaeochromocytoma. CONCLUSIONS: In patients with MEN 2 syndrome phaeochromocytomas are usually benign adrenal tumours with high risk of bilateral development. Taking to account the latter risk and non-specific clinical manifestation of the neoplasm it is mandatory to screen all RET proto-oncogene mutations carriers for phaeochromocytoma.

Experimental inoculation of BFDV-positive budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus) with two Mycobacterium avium subsp. avium isolates.

Beak and feather disease virus- (BFDV-) positive (naturally infected) but clinically healthy budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus) were inoculated with two isolates of Mycobacterium avium subsp. avium isolated from naturally infected golden pheasant (Chrysolophus pictus) and peafowl (Pavo cristatus). During a period of more than two months after inoculation, samples of cloacal and crop swabs, faeces, and blood were obtained for BFDV and Mycobacterium avium testing with PCR. Birds were euthanized nine weeks after inoculation. All infected budgerigars developed signs typical of mycobacteriosis, but more advanced clinical and pathological changes were visible in the group infected with the pheasant isolate. Only a few cloacal and crop swab samples were positive for Mycobacterium avium subsp. avium despite advanced pathological changes in the internal organs. In the groups infected with mycobacterium isolates the frequency of BFDV-positive samples was higher than in the control group. In the infected groups the frequency of BFDV was substantially higher in the cloacal swabs of birds inoculated with the pheasant isolate than in the peafowl-isolate-infected group.

Experimental infection of budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus) with five Mycobacterium species.

The aim of the present study was to determine the susceptibility of budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus) to infections with different Mycobacterium species. For inoculations the following Mycobacterium species were used: Mycobacterium avium subsp. avium, Mycobacterium bovis subsp. bovis, Mycobacterium tuberculosis subsp. tuberculosis, Mycobacterium intracellulare and M. fortuitum subsp. fortuitum. The bacterial suspension was administrated intramuscularly and all the birds were monitored for 70 days starting from the day of inoculation. During the experiment clinical examination, X-ray scans, plate agglutination tests, tuberculin tests, faeces smear preparations and culture of mycobacteria were performed. The study showed that M. bovis subsp. bovis was the most pathogenic Mycobacterium species for budgerigars. After inoculation, the bacilli induced tuberculosis-typical, clinical signs and necropsy findings. In two out of six birds infected with M. bovis subsp. bovis radiological changes were also visible. Birds inoculated with other Mycobacterium species did not show any typical symptoms of infection, and only the results of histopathological and bacteriological examinations indicated the presence of infection.